Occoquan Workhouse (Historical Marker)

Here follows the inscription written on this trailside historical marker:

Occoquan Workhouse
This marker honors the suffragists imprisoned at the Occoquan Workhouse in 1917 and 1918, for picketing the White House to gain support for an amendment to the Constitution to give women the right to vote. The women were members of the National Woman’s Party, founded by Alice Paul in 1916. They came from diverse social backgrounds that included businesswomen, factory workers, homemakers, and students. Some women held membership in the DAR.

Sentenced for “obstructing the traffic” or “unlawful assembly,” they demanded treatment as political prisoners but were instead met with cruel punishments and deplorable living conditions.

The struggle for women’s suffrage continued as the women shared their stories through publications, rallies and legislative sessions. In 1920, women were granted the right to vote following ratification of the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.

Erected 2009 by Fairfax County Chapter, NSDAR.

Editor's Note: Building 2 is where this marker is located. These were prison dormitories until the prison was closed. They now house artist studios.


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Here follows an excerpt from the Clio Foundation website as written by Kimberlee Smith:

Introduction
The Lorton Reformatory, previously known as the Occoquan Workhouse, was established in 1910 as part of the Progressive Movement's effort to reform the penal system. The prison is best known for its deplorable treatment of women who were sent to Occoquan in 1917 following their arrest for participating in protests for women's suffrage at the nation's capital. Lucy Burns, Alice Paul and other prisoners launched a hunger strike in order to protest their arrest and publicize incidents of violence and sexual abuse. Prison guards force-fed the protesting prisoners. On the night of November 14th, 1917, the guards severely beat some of the women. News of the abuse galvanized support for women's suffrage and led to investigations into the treatment of prisoners at the workhouse and other prisons.

Backstory and Context
The origin of the prison can be traced back to 1908, when President Theodore Roosevelt appointed a panel to investigate conditions in Washington's jails and prison. The panel issued several recommendations, including the transfer of inmates who had committed non-violent crimes away from the high-security prison. Congress responded by providing funding for a medium-security reformatory and workhouse that would be built to resemble a college campus and emphasize rehabilitation through labor.

The DC department of corrections selected inmates and transferred them from the high-security complex to the present site in 1910. Occoquan was built in several phases, with labor being provided by these first prisoners. In 1916, the brick structure was complete. Over time, the Department of Corrections transformed Occoquan from a minimum security facility into Lorton Prison, complete with high walls and guard towers.

During the Cold War, the federal government built an underground bunker that held weapons and equipment in reserve. Less attention was given to the actual state of the prison, which became outdated and overcrowded. Prisoners were transferred to other facilities during the 1990s, and the prison closed in 2002. Control of the land and buildings transferred to Fairfax County, where community leaders worked to transform the former prison into a cultural arts center. In 2008, the Workhouse Arts Center opened offering several galleries and studios, as well as a youth arts center and theater.


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Here follows an excerpt from the Clio Foundation website as written by Lindsey Kraus, Daniel Newcomer, and Genna Duplisea:

Introduction
Built by the bricks made by its inmates, the District of Columbia’s Workhouse opened in the summer of 1910. The site was initially created as an experiment to determine if hard labor and an open-air environment would help reform short-term prisoners charged with drunkenness, disorderly conduct, and other crimes. A notable contribution to the importance of this place was its involvement in the women’s suffrage movement and the women known as the Silent Sentinels who were treated deplorably during their stay at the prison. The Workhouse has served several purposes and has changed hands several times throughout its history. The site has been used as a workhouse, a maximum-security prison, and is currently used to house the Workhouse Arts Center and Museum to name a few. Today, the Prison Museum provides visitors with an overview of the history of the prison with a greater focus on the suffragists and the torture, hunger strikes, and force-feeding that they had to endure.

Backstory and Context
The District of Columbia’s Workhouse opened in Lorton, Virginia in the summer of 1910 and was initially created as an experiment to determine if hard labor and an open-air environment would be beneficial to help reform “short-term prisoners who were habitual drunkards, vagrants, and family abusers.” The U.S. government purchased 3,200 acres of land for the Workhouse at the cost of $28,650 on April 1st, 1910 with the intent of establishing an industrial farm and worksite for prisoners. Initially, there were no built structures for the prisoners and they had to use tents and temporary structures. Eventually, a brickyard was built and the fields were converted and used for cultivation. The inmates used the bricks they made in the brickyard onsite to build the brick dormitory buildings that remain standing today. In 1912, there was also a Women’s Workhouse that was opened nearby that housed women sentenced for smaller charges like soliciting, prostitution, and disorderly conduct. The National Register of Historic Places approved this site for statewide status on February 2, 2012, which was amended from a previous request in 2005.

A notable contribution to the history of this site was its involvement in the women’s suffrage movement. In 1917, women began demonstrating in front of the White House for the right to vote and decided they would rather be imprisoned than be quiet. Some of the women that were arrested were sentenced to the Women’s Workhouse at Lorton. What is most notable about their imprisonment was that the women were held under “deplorable conditions.” These women, also known as the Silent Sentinels, “endured unspeakable torture and abuse at the hands of more than 40 prison officials and guards.” These women were served rancid food, were chained and beaten, “some by having their heads smashed into iron bed frames, and one woman, a 74-year old suffragette, was stabbed with part of her broken picketing banner.” The suffragists claimed status as political prisoners but were denied access to counsel and when one group of suffragists began a hunger strike to protest the prison‘s lack of recognition of their political prisoner status, they were forcibly fed through feeding tubes. These events and the history surrounding these women are featured in current the museum at the Workhouse Arts Center.

In 1936, the Workhouse was converted into a maximum-security facility and was later overseen by the District of Columbia’s Department of Corrections that was created to supervise the Lorton Complex in 1946. During this time, the complex saw multiple changes to support the new security requirements and help support the maximum-security facility. Between 1950 and 1952 a reformatory fence and lights were installed and there was also an increase in violence from prisoners. These facilities were in poor condition and overcrowded. In 1958, the first officer was killed on site in the line of duty and the first major riot at the prison occurred in 1963. With these changes and challenges to the facility, the men and women’s workhouses closed in 1966 along with the farming and agriculture branches that followed in 1995. Also in 1995, the Federal Trustees took over responsibility for the complex and turned it into a super-maximum security prison. The federal government took over because the D.C. government was unable to “resolve the facility’s problems.” Around the late 1990s, the prison was thought of as “an oppressive, poorly managed prison where escapes and riots often have made news and guards sometimes have been charged with crimes themselves.” Interestingly, Congress turned over the prison complex to Fairfax County, where Lorton is located, and the Fairfax Water Authority took control of the site in 1998.

Because of the mismanaged and overcrowded conditions, the prison was closed with the last prisoner leaving in December 2001. In 2002, 2,324 acres were sold to Fairfax County for 4.2 million dollars. The Lorton Arts foundation was approved to open the Workhouse Art Center in 2004. The Workhouse Arts Center officially opened in 2008, with a museum following later that year. There are numerous artists that have shops throughout the current complex, and there are many options, from food to theater classes that are offered at the arts center. There are several opportunities for visitors interact with artists and to participate in the many performing arts opportunities and classes available.


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Here follows an excerpt from the Northern Virginia History Notes website:

Occoquan Workhouse
by Debbie Robison

DEVELOPMENT OF A PROGRESSIVE-ERA, MODEL PENAL SYSTEM
Due to a clamor for reform in the penal methods, and overcrowding and unsanitary conditions at the District of Columbia jail, Congress passed legislation in 1909 authorizing the purchase of land for a workhouse and reformatory of modern and sanitary construction.

One objective of the new workhouse and reformatory was to create a model penal system for replication across the United States. The District jail commission studied and discussed various penal institution models to determine the ideal system for local implementation. Massachusetts prisons at Bridgewater, Sherborn, and Concord were used as models for the District, after being visited and praised by District Engineer Commissioner Maj. V. Judson.

Progressive-era reform advocated training prisoners for a trade to enable them to obtain employment following their release, making prisons self-supporting through use of prison labor, and providing a wholesome and uplifting environment. District jail Warden McKee was an advocate of reform, stating:

"Instead of sending young men and women to the jail for workhouse, it would be more humane for the future citizenship of the country to send them to an institution conducted along the lines of your National Training School for Boys, where they could be taught trades of usefulness…Instead of building jails and workhouses, establish a big farm, where criminals can be given work and made to support themselves. Give me the prisoners that come annually to the jail and workhouse on a 500-acre farm, and I’ll make them self-supporting and turn over to the government annually a large profit, instead of having to pay out $200,000 or more for their maintenance. This would be more humane, and certainly more economical…"

Implementation of the progressive ideals included encouraging the prisoners to better behavior by treating them with dignity. Superintendent W. H. Whittaker told 50 prisoners, whom he was transporting from the District jail to the site of the workhouse, that he would trust them to not attempt to break away, and was therefore not going to handcuff or shackle them. Whitaker was pleased with the success of this novel plan of handling prisoners. Whittaker also provided an incentive for good behavior: All convicts who have records for good behavior are to wear blue suits, and Mr. Whittaker believes that every man in the prison will work to win one…

The new workhouse was constructed, in an effort to advance progressive reform, without bolts or bars. The system was designed to appeal to the honor and manhood of prisoners. In 1914, Whittaker furthered progressive reform by removing Stockades and all semblance of restriction for keeping the prisoners… In actuality, though, leg-irons and handcuffs were used to discipline prisoners who broke the rules.

Whittaker repeatedly, but without apparent success, lobbied for indeterminate sentences and parole. His objective was to use sentence length to control good behavior, and believed that short sentences did not allow for sufficient time for reform.

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE WORKHOUSE
District commissioners solicited proposals for sites for a new jail and reformatory. To be considered, a site had to be not less than 1,000 acres, and was evaluated based on suitability for farming and price.

European agricultural prisons had already been established in many countries, and were looked upon as learning opportunities. Jail commissioners may have stipulated the 1,000 acre requirement based on what past experience showed was the capacity of the land.

"Whenever a new prison is to be constructed the authorities should buy ample land upon which to erect it - not less than an acre for every prisoner, counting the maximum population…"

After inspecting several proposed sites, Maj. V. Judson recommended the Dawson tract, on the Occoquan River opposite the village of Occoquan, for the workhouse. The site was preferred because it could be reached by boats, allowing supplies and prisoners to be transported by water. Additional advantages were described by the commissioner:

"Maj. Judson explained that the site has a considerable amount of timber on it; has a stone quarry, and is high and healthy. From the quarry stone can be obtained for road making and like purposes. The soil of the tract, he said, has been tested by experts from the Department of Agriculture, who gave it a favorable report. The site furnishes a means of keeping the prisoners busy at cutting timber, quarrying stone, or tilling the soil. It is the intention of the commissioners to make the institution self-supporting, if possible."

The public was under the impression that condemnation proceedings would be required to acquire the land; however, Auditor Tweedale did not believe that would be necessary since J. L. Dawson, the owner of the tract, felt he had clear titles. As it turned out, condemnation proceedings were necessary to settle the price. Likely, J. L. Dawson had pulled together an assemblage of tracts owned by himself and others, many of whom may be related. In addition to J. L. Dawson, the land owners were L. A. Denty, T. D. Violett, George W. and James T. Dawson, Katherine C. Holt, W. S. Lynn, George A. Selecman, Julia F. Selecman, and Redman and G. A. Selecman.

Construction began on temporary prisoner quarters, consisting of tents surrounded by a stockade fence, in June 1910.

"A stockade 490 feet long and 116 feet wide has been laid out close by the edge of the Occoquan River. The spruce poles, set close together and rising to a height of 12 feet, were felled by the prisoners, trimmed into shape, and set up. These 12-foot poles will be closely strung with barbed wire forming an inner guards’ corridor…On the inside, arrangements for the prisoners’ camp are rapidly taking shape. Already the cook shack is up, as well as a sleeping tent and dining tent. When plans are complete there will be seven large tents. Four of them will be 125 feet long. Of these four tents, three will be used as sleeping quarters, while the fourth will be a combination cooking and eating tent. Two 40-foot tents will be used, respectively, one for a bath and one for hospital purposes. An additional 30-foot tent will be for the accommodation of the guards…"

Design plans for the workhouse were underway in early 1910. Although Snowden Ashford was the Municipal Architect responsible for the workhouse, Leon E. Dessez was the special architect who was appointed by the commissioners to draft plans for the new workhouse. By winter, temporary frame buildings were to be built at the site of the future permanent quarters. Prisoners were sent to a convict camp at the workhouse quarry to begin quarrying stone for the foundations of the temporary buildings and for road construction.

LOCAL OPTIMISM CHANGES TO REGRET
Many landowners in the Occoquan area offered their land for sale for the workhouse and reformatory. Local residents were optimistic that the institutions would revitalize their community.

"Nearly all of the land owners and tenants in the vicinity…are of the opinion that the location of the two institutions will greatly benefit their property. It is explained by rivermen that the proposition of running a boat to these places will mean the erection of several modern wharfs, which are greatly needed. Others say that it eventually will mean the extension of the electric car line, and make traffic to Washington convenient."

Prior to the start of any construction at the workhouse, the Fairfax County Board of Supervisors passed a resolution to help protect the local community from having prisoners released in the area. The Board asked that the prisoners be transported out of Fairfax County before being let loose, instead of making the county the dumping ground for such undesirable citizens.

Within six months of the arrival of the first prisoner, the community suffered in fear for their safety, allegedly caused by the progressive reform methods employed at the workhouse.

"Quite the most serious feature of the system in vogue at the workhouse is the so-called honor system, putting the convicts on parole, or something similar, and sending them over the public roads, without any sort of a guard or keeper, in pairs and in large squads. It is not safe for a woman or child to travel unattended, and even the men go armed. The striped clothes of the convicts have been abandoned and the convicts clothed in a uniform and cap of cadet blue…"

Joseph M. Springman, Sr., proprietor of a general merchandise store at Lorton Station complained that business had fallen off due to the conditions. Many of the families left the area and put their homes up for sale. At least three sales fell through due to the location of the workhouse.

BRICK-MAKING INDUSTRY
Prior to purchasing the land for the workhouse, the District of Columbia recognized that valuable clay deposits were on the site. As part of the reform model developed to utilize convict labor, the prisoners at the workhouse constructed a brick kiln to manufacture all of the bricks to be used in construction of the workhouse, reformatory, and accessory buildings.

It was discovered, after prisoners began clearing the land, that the site selected on the Occoquan River for the kiln was the site of a Revolutionary-war burying ground. Whittaker proposed relocating the graves and burying them in a mound in the forest until protests were lodged.

In March 1912, eight firms submitted bids to furnish the District with 60 tons of fire clay and 300,000 fire bricks to be used in construction of the brick kilns. A new brick-making unit was constructed in 1925 that expanded the capabilities of the brick-making operations.

"In addition to common bricks and rough texture face bricks, hollow tile can be made…Introduction of the manufacture of hollow tile at the brickyard will effect a savings of at least $400 on each dormitory building constructed. Operation of the new brick machinery with electric motor drive will effect a savings in coal…"

When plans for permanent buildings for the reformatory were prepared in 1919, it was estimated that 4,000,000 bricks from the workhouse would be utilized. It was reported in 1927, that workhouse prisoners made 4,283,000 bricks during the year. A clay storage shed, with a capacity of 60 days’ supply of clay, enabled operations to continue uninterrupted during the winter. Prisoner manufactured brick was sold to the District government for use in municipal construction; for example, sewers, engine houses, and school houses, including Central High School. Whittaker hoped to make an excellent paving brick. In 1915, the brick was transported by water to the District brick storage house wharf at the foot of Tenth Street southwest.

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REFORMATORY
It was always the intent of the U. S. Congress to construct both a workhouse and reformatory. A study by the jail commission, authorized by Congress to investigate the overcrowding and unsanitary conditions of the District jail and workhouse, recommended both institutions. Each was to house a different class of convict.

"A reformatory for all who must be sentenced to confinement, and who, nevertheless, are hopeful cases. A workhouse for those who must be confined and who are not proper subjects for reformatory treatment, and yet whose offenses are not such as to require that they be sent to a penitentiary."

Those not considered candidates for reform were sent federal penitentiaries. The class of convict slated for the reformatory and workhouse flip-flopped by the time the reformatory was being constructed. The workhouse received convicts with the shorter sentences. At the time the reformatory was being planned, it was desired to relocate long-term prisoners, then confined to federal prisons in other parts of the country, closer to the District in keeping with local ideals of reformation.

"To obviate the necessity of sending long-term prisoners to penal institutions in various parts of the United States, all possible effort is being made to rush the construction of the temporary quarters for the care of that class of convicts at Occoquan, Va."

Construction of the reformatory was delayed after the site selected was deemed too close to Mount Vernon, and a different tract of land needed to be sought. Condemnation hearings on a tract of land adjoining the workhouse begin in 1913, with most of the land owners agreeing upon a price. In April 1914, the District acquired 1,388 acres, most in second growth pine and some original forest growth of hardwoods…much of the building material [for the workhouse], such as brick and stone, will be supplied from the workhouse by convict labor.

District Building Commissioner Oliver P. Newman made a study of penal institutions in the south in preparation to the formulation of plans for the reformatory.

"Commissioner Newman says that the committee having in charge the drafting of plans for the reformatory hopes to take a forward step that has not yet been taken in any other part of the United States, and to produce a penal institution without stockades, locks, bars, punishment, silence, or other restrictions usually associated with such institution. Considerable progress in this direction has already been made at the Occoquan workhouse…"

Superintendent Whittaker made suggestions on the design of the reformatory to Commissioner Newman that he felt would best meet the needs of the reformatory. He accompanied his written suggestions with pencil sketches of the conceptual buildings.

Work began on temporary frame buildings in February 1915. Whittaker was placed in charge of construction, which was carried out primarily by workhouse labor. It was expected that the temporary buildings would be ready for occupancy in July 1916.

Plans for the construction of 29 permanent brick buildings were submitted in 1919 by Superintendent Charles Foster. The buildings were to be constructed by prisoners under the direction of C. B. Backus, constructing engineer.

"Superintendent Foster plans to make the group of buildings the “world’s most advanced penal colony.”

FARMING
The workhouse reform plan employed the concept of using prison labor in agricultural pursuits to provide food, fresh air, and work for the prisoners. When the District appropriated funds to purchase the land for the workhouse, they also appropriated funds to purchase farm equipment. By August 1911, 100 acres of farmland were under cultivation, with the hope of adding an additional 50 to 100 acres per year. To enrich the poor soil (once thought to be good), 400 to 500 loads of sweepings from the District streets and stables were brought to the workhouse farm in the six barges owned by the District, and used as fertilizer.

Guards employed at the workhouse were selected based upon their abilities for specialized work. The tilling of the land was supervised by guards who were also experienced practical farmers. In addition to vegetables, the prisoners raised cows to provide milk, and cattle and hogs for butchering. Chickens were raised within enclosures on the farm.

Farm products not consumed at the workhouse and reformatory were shipped to the District for use at other institutions, such as the jail and Washington Asylum Hospital, or to aid the poor. By 1927, the workhouse was growing enough vegetables to warrant the construction at the reformatory of a cannery. This enabled the excess vegetables to be conserved for the winter months.

Eugene Barrett, who was in charge of raising food for workhouse inmates, won prizes at the Prince William County fair for the tallest corn and the best alfalfa, which was also raised as winter fodder for the workhouse cattle. The house was likely named after Mr. Barrett.

By 1931, the reformatory had a large orchard; however, from 1944 to 1949, the orchards lost money four out of the five years. Consequently, 1,200 unproductive apple trees were chopped down so the land could be devoted to more productive agricultural activities. In 1956, a reformatory apple orchard was described as covering 100 acres.


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Here follows an excerpt from the Northern Virginia History Notes website:

Women's Suffrage Movement Led to Occoquan Workhouse Imprisonment
by Debbie Robison

The Occoquan workhouse played a central role in the efforts, and ultimate success, of suffragettes seeking the right to vote. Lucy Burns, who with Alice Paul founded the Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage (which evolved into the National Woman’s Party), was an influential leader behind efforts to attract publicity to the woman’s suffrage movement. Beginning in January 1917, women from all over the United States picketed President Woodrow Wilson’s administration at the White House. Wilson believed that suffrage was state issue, not a national one.

The picketers, arrested by a reluctant police force, initially were released on their own recognizance, and later given short three-day sentences in the District jail. On July 14, 1917, sixteen upper-society women were arrested and sentenced to two months in the District workhouse at Occoquan. Militants, as the picketers were termed, continued to be arrested and sent to the workhouse (some with six-month sentences) through November 1917. Charges faced by the women included inciting unlawful assemblage and obstructing traffic. Two leaders of the National Woman’s Party, Lucy Burns and Alice Paul, were imprisoned at the Occoquan workhouse. The courtroom was an opportunity for the suffragettes to speak out.

“As long as women have to go to jail for petty offenses to secure freedom for the women of America, then we will continue to go to jail.”

The imprisoned suffragettes were welcomed to the workhouse by Superintendent Whittaker, who felt they should be treated as any other prisoner. They wore gray one-piece dresses, ate standard prison fare, and were assigned to the sewing room and gardens to work. Whittaker announced that outside communications would be limited.

"Supt. Whittaker announced last night that there will be no visitors for the ladies and they will not be allowed to communicate with any one. They will be permitted to write to their relatives, subject to the jail censorship, and will be allowed to received letters from relatives, of course. If they desire a lawyer, he or she will be allowed to converse with them…"

Miss Lucy Burns visited the workhouse in August 1917 to investigate the lack of nourishment and poor food. Burns, finding that the women were much thinner and complaining of headaches due to poor and insufficient food, spoke in conference with Illinois Senator J. Hamilton Lewis. Lewis agreed to visit the workhouse to probe the charges.

Charges were filed against Whittaker by a committee of the National Woman’s party, headed by Miss Lucy Burns, accusing Whittaker of cruelty to prisoners. Malnutrition resulted in six women being hospitalized. Additionally, an affidavit charged Whittaker with permitting a prisoner to be chained to the walls in a cell of the workhouse. Pending an inquiry, Whittaker was relieved of his duties, but was later reinstated when he was exonerated.

The Board of Charities committee, in a report to commissioners stated:

"From the date of the commitment of the first of the several groups of the National Woman’s party to Occoquan a spirit of insubordination, of mischievous agitation and utter disregard of all rules and regulations has been exhibited by them.

This insubordination continued for eleven suffrage pickets who faced solitary confinement unless they rescind their “ultimatum” declaring that they will not work because they are “political prisoners.”

Led by Alice Paul and Miss Winslow, sixteen suffragettes began hunger strikes in mid-November. It was reported by National Women’s Party members that:

"Mrs. Lawrence Lewis…and Miss Lucy Burns…were removed from Occoquan to jail Tuesday, where they were forcibly fed, Miss Burns by means of a tube through the nose."

By the end of November 1917, sentences for the suffragettes required that they be sent to the Washington Asylum Jail instead of Occoquan. Some were illegally transferred to the workhouse, but were subsequently returned by court order. Eighteen lawsuits, totaling $1.2 M, were filed in December by picketers alleging insults, abuse, and false imprisonment. Supervisor Whittaker resigned three months later, and was replaced by Charles C. Foster.

On August 26, 1920, the 19th amendment to the Constitution was ratified, giving women the right to vote.